"On two kinds of thinking"
September, 2002
by Robert I. Winer, M.D.
(the following is a short essay on some
of the problems posed by the presentation of the thinking function
in C.G. Jung's book "Symbols of Transformation.")
Introduction
In the first chapter of "Symbols of
Transformation" Jung begins with a discussion of dream symbolism
culminating in a question, "how is it that dreams are symbolical
at all?" (ST, ¶12). Jung notes that the language of
dreams (symbolic representation) is quite different from the
language of conscious thinking which he later asserts is "thinking
in words." Noting this clear difference and similarity to
dreaming, he names this other type of thinking, "dreaming
or fantasy thinking" (ST, ¶ 20).
From the language used by Jung in "Symbols
of Transformation" it seems to me that the fantasy material
from Miss Miller's journals was extremely interesting to him,
at first based upon his recognition of a link between its mythological
themes and the delusional material he had noticed in his work
with schizophrenics. I believe that Jung began this work with
a chapter on thinking so as to supply some basis, already somewhat
accepted in the medical literature of his time, for understanding
the "fantasy thinking" seen in Ms. Miller. Also one
cannot help but notice that Ms. Miller's thoughts about her fantasies
were written in a somewhat intellectual or scholarly fashion
in which she tried to understand them from a thinking perspective.
I suspect this also had an impact on Jung's choice on how to
begin the work. In addition, the fantasies came to him through
Flournoy, a psychiatrist both he and the medical community greatly
respected which undoubtedly lent a certain air of respectability
to the investigation of such otherwise "unscientific"
material. I have chosen to discuss topically some thoughts of
interest triggered by Jung's discussion in this chapter.
Directed Thinking and the Outside World
Jung asserts that conscious thinking, what
he calls "directed thinking" moves along a path, as
"a train of thought" and that this skill was not part
of life in Greek times. It seems to me that his line of reasoning
here reflected a bias, namely that conscious thought was an evolutionary
advancement of adaptation to a world of objects external to the
ego. Jung writes that the purpose of directed thinking is to
express, teach, or convince someone in the outside world (ST
¶ 11) and "so long as we think directedly, we think
for others and speak to others" (ST, ¶ 12). One cannot
help but consider the influence that the extraverted temperament
of Freud had upon him at this time.
Directed Thinking and Fatigue
While Jung's point that directed thinking
causes fatigue is no doubt true in many cases, it seems to me
to have little relevance to an investigation into the nature
of thinking. The concept he has identified is broader and, in
my opinion, not related to thinking per se, but rather will.
For the sake of this paper, I'll suggest that will be defined
as the motive force behind word or deed.
The element that causes the fatigue is
not specific to thinking the exertion of concentrated application
of attention and one's superior function. It seems to me that
for Jung, as he later points out about himself (APS, p. 28),
intuition, or more specifically intuitive thinking, was an inferior
function which according to depth psychology must lay below in
the unconsciousness. Jung noted just in "fantasy thinking"
just the opposite. To him it seemed "effortless, working
as it were spontaneously, with the contents ready to hand, and
guided by unconscious motives (ST, ¶ 20). I've found that
prolonged periods of intense intuitive thinking can be quite
fatiguing for me. I attribute this to being of a different temperament
than Jung. I am an intuitive thinker (dominant and first auxiliary
function). Here, Jung rightly points out the empirical distinctives
between directed and fantasy thinking. However these differences
do not necessarily indicate a functional distinctive as his later
work on inferior function so aptly pointed out.
Also I believe that Jung must have been
looking for structural distinctives in thinking. At this time,
this was the state-of-the-art in psychiatry and neurology. Particularly
in his peer group of German language-speaking physicians, neuro-anatomical
localization based upon pathological material was the standard.
Will and Thinking
The idea of will or directing attention
played a crucial role in Jung's thoughts in this chapter. It
seems to me that Jung is saying there are two types of thinking,
willed and unwilled. The unwilled arises spontaneously from the
unconscious and occurs whenever consciousness wanes, whether
that be voluntary or involuntary. Empirically this is a very
valuable observation which applies to any of the four function
and not specifically to thinking. To my knowledge, its validity
is still quite applicable to the human condition. Of course,
this idea of Jung's is based upon Janet's concept of abaissement
du niveau mental.
Directed Thinking and Evolutionary Biology
It also seems to me that Jung was unduly
influenced by the nineteenth century concept that man, as an
organism, was evolving. This seems to me to be one of the factors
underlying his assertion that directed thinking was a modern
phenomena. Though it is a fact that until the industrial revolution,
mankind had little progress in material development, this seems
to be his sole "proof" that the ancients lacked directed
thinking. It is an argument that cannot be refuted from a logic
basis, but one I find not very compelling.
Directed Thinking and Language
Jung's identifies directed thinking as
the thinking of words and language to be distinguished from the
thinking in images of fantasy thinking. I'd like to point out
that at present there is no neuroanatomical support for making
such a structural distinction, nor is there evidence that a functional
distinction exists. To think about any content it must be made
representable in some form. Descriptively, the idea that we make
thoughts representable as analogies to sense experiences is as
good as any other schema. The nature of thought itself still
remains a mystery. Is thought an energy form? Does it have material
substance? These are unanswered questions. Since thought's actual
nature is unknown, we naturally grasp for ways to express it.
Analogy to sense experience is both convenient and empirically
accurate. The psychic principle of projecting meaning upon every
content whose nature is unknown applies here. So naturally, it
seems to any observer that thought is always expressed along
sensational lines, such as "feeling a thought or hearing
a thought," or the focus in Jungian work, "seeing a
thought," that is, in image. It seems to me that one's specific
assignment of a particular sense analogy to thought is based
upon their temperament and projections.
Departure from Freud
I suggest that prior to writing this book
Jung came to believe that mythological contents were based upon
inborn predispositions. This position was a clear departure from
the Freudian tradition he had previously embraced. In this work,
Jung points out three grouping of mythological thinking: ancient
man, children, primitives, and their parallel in dreams. He asserts
that psyche, like the physical changes one can see in the development
of an embryo to an infant, shows characteristics suggesting evolutionary
or developmental stages. Along these lines of thought, he says
of fantasy thinking that it and "infantile thinking ...
are simply a recapitulation of earlier evolutionary stages"
(ST, ¶ 26). Jung also points out that the vestiges of ancient
or primitive mythological thinking are manifested in current
day animal carvings, such as the "dove, the lamb, and cock
adorning our church towers ..." (ST, ¶ 36). These serve
as the basis for Jung making an important departure from Freudian
theory: "the unconscious basis of dreams and fantasies are
only apparently infantile reminiscences. In reality we are concerned
with primitive or archaic thought-forms, based on instinct, which
naturally emerge more clearly in childhood then they do later.
But they are not in themselves infantile, much less pathological."
(ST, ¶ 38). He also makes a pivotal observation that "...
any introversion occurring in later life regresses back to infantile
reminiscences which, though derived from the individual's past,
generally have a slight archaic tinge. With stronger introversion
and regression the archaic features become more pronounced"
(ST, ¶ 40).
A Work in Progress
Jung wrote his first paper on type, "A
Contribution to the Study of Psychological Types," in 1913
not long after "Symbols of Transformation." Though
in this paper, he proposes the terms, extraversion and introversion
to "describe the "two opposite movements of libido"
(PT, ¶ 859) he did as yet not combine this concept with
his ideas about thinking. It wasn't until approximately 1920,
that Jung's ideas on thinking matured stimulated by William James'
writings on temperament and Flournoy's interpretation of James'
ideas. In "Psychological Types" he wrote: "active
thinking, accordingly, would correspond to my concept of directed
thinking. Passive thinking was inadequately described in my previous
work [Symbols of Transformation] as fantasy thinking. Today I
would call it intuitive thinking" (PT, ¶ 830).
Thinking and Judgment
Conscious life constantly involves thinking,
if we think of thinking as the function of ordering. If our attention
if drawn to something or we direct our attention toward a content
(sense perception either from the inside or outside or an idea
/ perception from within) then we cannot help but think about
it (order that content). If we are conscious of a content then
it either must be ordered or repressed. The ordering may simply
be to discard the content as in forgetting or to allow it to
remain in the field of conscious or near its threshold. On the
other hand, if we are unconscious of a content, then thinking
need not take place as occurs with subliminal contents.
Also it follows that if thinking is ordering,
then on some level a judgment must take place once a content
is thought about. Judgment, though proceeding along temperamental
lines by preferentially applying the principles of utility (thinking)
and /or value (feeling), must be part of or involve thinking.
Jung noted this inclusion of judgment in his definition, writing
that "the term thinking should, in my view, be confined
to the linking up of ideas by means of a concept, in other words,
to an act of judgment, no matter whether this act is intentional
or not" (PT, para 831). He also made the distinction between
ideation, a "mere stringing together of ideas," (PT,
¶ 831) and thinking, whether it be of the directed or passive
/ fantasy type.
Key
ST = "Symbols of Transformation"
APS = "Analytical Psychology Seminar"
PT = "Psychological Types"
copyright 2002, Robert I. Winer,
M.D.
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